Modernization Theory Essay

According to Macionis (2010), the definition of modernization theory â€Å"is a model of economic and social development that explains global inequality in terms of technological and cultural differences between nations†. Modernization theory is a description, explanation, and account of the way of traditional and under established or underdeveloped societies, compared to more modern societies. Modernization is one of the most important perspectives in development and underdevelopment since the 1950s. Primary attention has focused on ways in which past and present modern societies become modern through the process of economic growth and change in community, educational, and supporting structures. Modernization is the process in which society experiences industrialization urbanization and many other social changes that transform the lives of the population. Social change has been, and probably will continue to be, a complex process that reflects the priorities we set for any na tion as well as our will to achieve them. Modernization has rapidly manifested itself through four distinct categories; the decline of small traditional communities, expansion of personal choice, increasing social diversity, and orientation toward the future and growing awareness. Society will continue to change as new technology is developed and new ideas are explored. Modernization can produce many rewarding results. On the other hand, according to some theorists it can be detrimental to certain societies. With modernization comes the decline of small traditional communities, the foothold to the once solidarity and meaning of society’s experience, weakened if not destroyed all together. For thousands of years, before the industrial revolutions, people lived in rural villages spread throughout the land. These societies revolved around family and neighbor, and valued traditions, where each person had a well-defined roll, a strong sense of identity, belonging and purpose. Yet, the downside to life in these rural village’s people was that they had limited personal choice in what they could do. Some of the negative consequences of modernization are: it lessens the requirement for labor, creating job cuts. At one point in time, modernization became the problem of the environment pollution. You can see the detrimental effects from the industrial fog hanging above our large cities. This fog is caused mostly by automobiles and industrial plants. Prevalence of terrorism is also a consequence, and face-to-face social interaction is dwindling. Some of the positive consequences of modernization are: it reduces costs, improves the quality of goods, deliverance of goods is faster, efficiency level is higher, people stay healthy longer, communication is improved, and so forth. With modernization in an area, comes the resistance from traditional people. Change is an uncomfortable thing for the older generations. Some people see modernization in a bad way because they feel that it has destroyed our traditional values. They might feel that the modern way of life has affected our rules and our principles. The term modernization is connected to technology, which does not affect cultural traditions exactly. Cell phones, for example, are not used in churches or temples, a place of tradition. The amount of information technology can bring however, will influence traditional thinking. Some say that one only has to turn on the local news to realize that never has it been clearer that the perceptions and values taught by our ancestors have fallen at the feet of modernization. Some people feel â€Å"too old† to learn the new ways of the world. Technology, as they see it, could possibly destroy human relationships. The personal computer and internet have replaced the post cards and even the human conversations. Mobile messages have replaced the human voice. I believe that one can preserve all the traditions one wants, but with the rest of the world moving forward a balance can be established between tradition and modernization. Modernization is necessary if the country desires to be included in the economic development and advancements that are around us. Assuming that modernization is a systematic and transformative process, from an economic development perspective, accounting for the developmental stages of a society (traditional society, precondition for takeoff, the takeoff process, the drive to maturity, and high mass consumption), one could systematically modernize a Third World Country. Countries in Latin America, Cambodia, and Laos, to name a few, stagnated in development due to their lack of productive investments and stood to benefit from mitigating efforts based out of the modernization theory. The modernization solution to their stagnation relied on the provision of aid to these countries in the form of capital, technology, and expertise. Once modernization takes hold of a society, it will never let go. People with knowledge want more. The more people know, the more they want to know, so yes modernization is here to stay. The trend has become a worldwide trend. However, there are many areas of the world that have yet to be touched by modernization and the ways of the modern world, but it is only a matter of time before they too are assimilated into the process and are unable to resist the impetus towards modernization. References Macionis, J. (2010). Soc 100: Sociology: 2011 custom edition (13th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ. (pp. 312-316). Google (2012). Modernization, Retrieved May 2, 2012 from http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/387301/modernization

Family as portrayed in mass media Essay

Through the years, the role played by media generated socially relevant and noteworthy impacts to society. Because of exposes and investigative reports, several high-profiled and ranking individuals or personalities were forced to exit the limelight. The scandals and controversies that they went through were simply too much to bear. Whether such situations were intentional or unintentional, still it cannot be denied that media’s appeal and effects cannot be easily dismissed. On the other hand, media channels are also responsible for providing much needed information to the public. Every single day, it has been a habit for many to enjoy their favorite news programs. Others, who do not have the luxury of time, rely on newspapers and online news sites to keep on track and remain aware of the important issues of their respective communities. In recent years, being informed is a necessity rather than a mere caprice of one’s intellectual vanity. As information channels, there is no doubt that mass media has also assume the role of educating and indoctrinating many. However, if there is one thing wherein media is readily recognized—it is its capacity to bring pleasure and entertainment right in the very portals or domain’s of one’s house. While this may sound too superficial or critical about media’s function and importance, providing momentary relaxation and enjoyment is one of the fundamental reasons behind the continuous survival of different media institutions. Mass media are not created out of a vacuum. Aside from man’s desire to communicate and express himself, mass media also serve as the bread and butter of various business tycoons. Yes, it cannot be denied the fact that media are also business establishments or organizations that are aiming towards corporate-related goals and attributions, rather than maintaining its role as the public’s herald and opinion platforms. This also best explains why different media establishments use mass appeal as one of the most important factors to consider in producing various kinds of media content. As a result, various kinds of media-related products are often characterized by their mediocrity and artificiality. There are instances wherein media representations of reality are way to exaggerated or romanticized. The situations and events that are presented seem be too imaginary and does not really articulate the happenings of the real world. Like plain pictures, reality, as shown in mass media channels, such as the newspapers, radio and most especially in films and television programs are often sanitized. The situations and events that are actually happening in the real world are readily modified to capture the public’s attention and therefore garner high ratings and a pool of advertisers. On one hand, this aspect is something that commonly occurs. One should not be surprised with this system. However, since mass media are pretty influential, somehow it also affects the views and behaviors of their respective audiences. If the media is expected to become harbingers of knowledge and information, then clearly, this scenario defeats such purpose. Reality’s portrayal and depiction in mass media is yet one of the most important issues and areas of concern that should be attended and carefully addressed. This stems from the fact that media is the so-called â€Å"fourth estate† which means that these organizations are influential. It can shape and mould the opinions and views of many, which in return, are essential in creating necessary public decisions. In a sense, their notion of reality as portrayed by media can affect the manner wherein an individual generates action and responses towards his or her environment. One of the most popular themes that are often shown in the media, to be more specific in television shows and programs, revolve around family matters. Basically, there are some reasons that can explain the proliferation and promotion of such media content. First of all, filial concerns are generic and encompassing. It is generic since every human being belongs to a family. Regardless of whether a person grew up in a â€Å"foster family,† still the notion of belonging to a highly reliable and trusted group is still apparent. Perhaps the only difference is that, in such a scenario, the biological connections are absent. But then again, in terms of having a primary foundation for one’s identity and members who are always there throughout the time are evident. The kind of â€Å"togetherness† and â€Å"identification† that other groups cannot possibly provide can be seen in the family. Tackling topics and themes regarding the family provides a common ground for many viewers. The problems and experiences that are shown in family oriented shows are reflective of the daily undertakings of an individual. It is easier for the audience to relate and connect to such themes. Understanding the concepts that are being shown does not generate much difficulty compared to other television programs. Despite of the fact that there are episodes which may dwell on heavy themes, the complexity may not be as intense as those of highly-customized shows such as documentaries for example or even in television programs that specifically deals with scientific-related issues and concerns. Given this aspect at hand, family oriented shows can capture the attention and interest of the viewer’s majority in a household. Within a family of five, there is a big chance for a family-oriented program to control these audiences. One can just imagine how many viewers a family oriented show can accumulate in just a single episode. This of course does not include patrons who are outside of the United States. Lastly, it can be also argued that family television programs or shows have less possibilities of being subject to censorship by media regulation boards and groups. Family alone as a concept means that children are involved. Therefore, the producers of these shows should be wary about the language that they use. This is already given regardless of whether minor audiences are really involved or not. Being tactful is strictly observed. What does this mean? This means that the show can somehow avoid the pitfalls and repercussions of being suspended and paying large amounts or sums of fines. The operations are maintained and somehow the program is able to enjoy a considerably high rating and at the same time retain its most loyal viewers or audiences. There is indeed a market for family-oriented shows and programs. However, the more pressing issues and concerns that should be given focus in here is the manner wherein mass media portrays and depict the overall picture of family life. One of the most immediate matters that should be addressed is whether the actual reality of what is happening within the lives of many families is â€Å"truly† shown in television shows and sitcoms. More often than not, while it is true that mass media seeks for objectivity and unbiased representation of reality, it is still affected by the politics, culture and orientation that surrounds it. These forces cannot be really excluded in the whole discussion since these have effects and impacts when it comes to media content. Yet, one should be wary of the fact that focusing on how family life is being shown in mass media channels covers a wide scope. Therefore, in order to make the study more specific and maintain clarity, the explanations and arguments presented in this paper shall provide emphasis on how gender roles are being contextualized in family-oriented programs or shows. In lieu to this, power relations and class struggles shall be touched and analyzed in the whole discussion. The whole concept and meaning of the term â€Å"family† connotes and convey â€Å"oneness, togetherness and belongingness. † However, the divisions that are brought upon by gender and sexual orientations somehow affect the three notions. At the same time, this also have an impact on how the overall picture of being family is being created right in front of the public’s eyes. If mass media has the power to reflect the multi-faceted aspects of reality, then the shows and programs that are shown by these institutions is expected to bring reality—as close as possible to its specific set of audience and viewers. The overall system that dictates society is still patriarchal. The governing rule that is practiced and adhered to is still male-oriented. But then again, it can be seen that the so-called â€Å"girl empowerment† is now making its presence felt. Women are no longer seen as the weaker sex. However, many have been familiar with the â€Å"male system—† that totally asserting women’s voices and opinions becomes a complicated task. In this context, whether equality and justice is already achieved, shall be answered in the succeeding parts of the discussion.

Managing performance Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Managing performance - Essay Example At the forefront of issues and challenges that many if not all great companies of the 21st century are confronted all pertain to its workforce particularly the areas of discipline and efficiency. Much has been undertaken and usually at great expense to effectively manage discipline and employee productivity. The fundamental principle in managing companies big or small is to manage a company’s performance you have to manage the performance of its employees, officials, supervisors and managers. This leads to the question what is managing performance? Most if not all views and general opinion regarding this idea all refer to the handling as to how a company’s ability to meet its goals. This is usually forwarded by looking into the nature as well as objectives of its employees to better motivate them as well to make the company’s part of their long term goals. To an extent â€Å"performance management includes activities to ensure that goals are consistently being met in an effective and efficient manner† (McNamara, n.d.). It must be noted that the underlying fact is to be able to attain this by improving as well effectively managing the human element in a corporate setup. To arrive at a better characterization of managing performance it needs to put into context the said term in relation to the main focus of this paper. Moreover due to the complexity, multi – dimensional and multi level nature of managing performance it is necessary to narrow dow n any and all succeeding expositions. This in no way set to underscore the fact that all that the term managing performance encompasses as well as all the attached disciplines as well as topic areas are equally important. The point is to have focus as well as a refined discussion of managing performance in the context of this paper. Due to the explanative necessities of this paper the fundamental questions will also serve as the main objectives of the paper’s discussion. Moreover main discussion

Procrastination (Time Management) Personal Analysis Essay

Procrastination (Time Management) Personal Analysis - Essay Example Personally, my forms of procrastination are leaving my studies until the last minute as well as checking my mails and not replying them straight away. Having identified my forms of procrastination, I am planning to classify my objectives into smaller divisions that will be easier to do to stop procrastinating (Perry 2012, p.45). For instance, instead of waiting for the weekend to do a three hours studying, I am planning to take twenty minutes each day to go through my studies. This will ensure that I develop a culture of studying by doing so more regularly. Additionally, I am planning to get into the mindset that every task I do has a value (Arenson 2009, p.342) and this will help me not to feel that I am wasting my time when I reply to a single mail. I also plan to define my boundaries and allocate time to work, play and rest while ensuring that none of the three consumes time meant for the other (Andreou & White 2010,

Independence War 1775 Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Independence War 1775 - Research Paper Example However, the parliament made it clear through the enactment of the Declaratory Act of 1766, that it had the authority to tax the colonies (Bobrick 15). This paper is a critical evaluation of the economic factors, which pushed the colonies to rebel against Great Britain and demand for independence. Economic Factors that Led to the American War of Independence (1775-1783) The War of Independence, or the American Revolutionary War, is a war, which was fought between Great Britain and 13 American colonies between the years 1775 and 1783 (Greene 201). However, it may be important to note that France and Spain were also actively involved in the war as they provided military assistance to the Americans. When the British entered America long before the revolution, they settled in colonies, after which leaders were selected in every one of them as representatives of the British government in England. They were to ensure that the colonies provided sufficient raw materials to the industries abr oad as well as market for the manufactured products. They were also supposed to ensure that the colonies remained loyal to the crown by collecting taxes on behalf of the British government (Alden 20). ... More so because the colonies did not have sufficient machinery and personnel to defend themselves from France and therefore, they needed the protection of their mother country, which was well equipped militarily. Secondly, the Anglo-French war was a highly costly affair and it hurt the British economy deeply (Bailyn 27). It is estimated that in North America, the British government spent approximately 4% of its total spending to protect the colonies from French invasion (Bailyn, 36). The colonials from North America also failed to fulfill their obligations during the war in terms of financial contribution and provision of personnel to engage in the war to defend their territories. Due to this, the British Government decided to come up with a strategy to cover the heavy losses and one way to do this was to increase revenues from the colonies. In 1763, the British government decided to halt the expansion of the colonies by creating borders, with an intention of preserving land belongin g to the Indians (Alden 41). This move was meant to gain favor from the Indians so that they could become consumers of British manufactured goods thereby providing market, which was essential in promoting the economy. In order to achieve this objective, British soldiers were posted on the western lands and were charged with the mandate of expelling all the Americans who had settled there as well as prevent new settlement by the American colonials. Ironically, the soldiers were to be paid using taxes collected from the Americans (Bobrick 22). The colonials did not take this lightly as they perceived it as a move to limit their economic interests and this created discontent and hatred towards Britain as it led to the

Computer Law and Intellectual Property Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Computer Law and Intellectual Property - Essay Example Intellectual property law, a framework being used in science and arts for the protection of the rights of the owner/ inventor, can provide the appropriate scheme for the protection of rights of the owner/ inventor in the information technology (IT) sector. In accordance with Judge (2007, 301) ‘intellectual property law can serve as an autonomous source of liability for intellectual property owners’1. However, the protection of the owner of rights’ in the specific sector – as in all other scientific sectors – is related with specific terms. Regarding the protection provided to the owner of an IP right through the provision of a relevant license it has been supported in a relevant Court decision that ‘Lord Diplocks well-known statement in Allen & Hanburys v. Generics [1986] RPC 203 at 246: "A licence passes no proprietary interest in anything; it only makes an action lawful that would otherwise have been unlawful’2; in other words, a serie s of criteria need to be met in order for the state to intervene in a relevant dispute (ownership of rights) and provide the necessary protection to the owner. These criteria are clearly stated in the law developed in each country – always referring to the protection of the various aspects of intellectual property; however, it is also possible that rules of international organizations or bodies are applied – in European Union the Regulations published by the Union have to be applied by the National Courts but only under the terms that they have been verified by the authorized national bodies. In any case the intervention of the state or an international organization towards the protection of a specific IP right has to be appropriately justified. In accordance with the European Court of Justice ‘the lawfulness of a Community measure must be assessed on the basis of the matters of fact and of law existing at the time when the measure was adopted’

Diffusion weighted (DW) Magnetic Resonance Imaging MRI Essay

Diffusion weighted (DW) Magnetic Resonance Imaging MRI - Essay Example The exploration of diffusion in MRI includes the way MRI is sensitized to diffusion; the effects of spins, both stationary and moving spins; how diffusion-weighted images are affected by physiological motion; the how of the achievement of the various diffusion weightings; and information on diffusion and how those are measured (Hagmann et al. 2006; Mori and Barker 1999, pp. 102-106; Tonarelli 2012; Parker 2004, pp. S176-S178; Everdingen et al. 1998; Barker 1999; Maas 2005; Le Bihan et al. 2006; Yablonskiy et al. 2003; Koh and Collins 2007; Le Bihan 2011; Basser and Jones 2002; Battal et al. 2012; De Foer 2010; Luypaert et al. 2001; Williams et al. 1992; Topgaard 2006) II. Background on Diffusion Diffusion on the molecular level is said to be the result of natural Brownian movement, where molecules randomly move through the diffusion medium because of the agitation caused by thermal characteristics of the medium. In all the displacement of the molecules comes up to zero by mean figure s, but over time, there are positive probabilities associated with the non-zero movement of a molecule, so that over time, a molecule is said to probably have moved from an initial position at an earlier time. Here the time elapsed corresponds to a correlation with the distance moved, where different fluids acting as diffusion mediums determine the distance as characterized by the diffusion constant for that liquid type. There is a difference between the freely diffusing movement of water molecules, meanwhile, to the diffusion of liquids in the tissues of human beings, so that in human tissues one talks of an ADC, or an apparent diffusion coefficient, to be differentiated from the free diffusion coefficients of liquids outside of human bodies, such as those used to characterize water in containers at certain temperatures. On the other hand, for human tissues, various considerations further come into play, such as differences in the mobility of different fluids in different parts of the body and in different parts of a particular organ, such as the human brain. Boundary conditions also differ for liquids found in different body parts. All these affect the coefficient of diffusion in various ways, with the general observation that the ADC is generally smaller in comparison to the free diffusion coefficients of liquids like water outside of the human body (Luypaert et al. 2001; Roberts and Rowley 2003). Going into diffusion types, meanwhile, there are two, one being isotropic diffusion and the other being anisotropic diffusion. In isotropic diffusion, the rate of diffusion is the same in all directions, and so the resulting diffusion distribution is spherical. In anisotropic diffusion, the diffusion rate depends on where the diffusion is oriented, and there is uneven diffusion in different directions. The distance of the diffusion is orientation-dependent, in other words, and the diffusion distribution is characterized by an ellipsoid (Module 1 2013). III. MRI an d Diffusion A. How MRI is Sensitized to Diffusion In a hypothetical case, the typical distribution of displacement of water molecules in such a container is said to follow a bell curve, with majority of the water molecules able to travel only for short distances from their initial location, whereas a few of the water molecules are able to be displaced at further distances from average. For a given initial temperature of the water, moreover,

New age hip hop vs old school Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

New age hip hop vs old school - Essay Example This is attributed to the fact that what was sung in the earlier year has either been modified to meet the current demands in the market and the consumers. Lack of modification is a clear indication to the singer that he might not attract a large number of consumers but instead a specific one that is characterized by a given age category (Nattiez 49). The youth will prefer to listen to the hip hop music because of the way in which the musicians are dressed and the celebrity cars and houses in which they shoot their videos. It is therefore all about the complex nature and how classy the music appears to be. This may not be the case for the old school listeners whose intention is to listen to the message being communicated through music. They bought the music because of the skills that were being portrayed and the rhyming beats. This is not common among the hip hop listeners who love the wack rhythms and dope beats. Most of the old school songs always have a theme whenever they are being composed and it is easier for the listener to tell what the intention of the singer is. This may not be the case for the hip hop songs which in most cases the intention of the musician is to show off the classy assets they have or are aware of in their country (Hickmann 60). They rarely have a theme when recording and singing an indication that they end up only attracting a smaller and specific age category. Most of their productions are considered to be short term as they are only listened to for a specific period of time whereas those of the old school remain hit songs throughout even after the demise of the singers. Most of the other age categories apart from those of the youth may not easily tell what the intention of the hip hop singer was as some of them aim at hitting back at their fellow hip hop musicians. Music as an entertainment genre is meant to be educative in its own way and it should not only limit itself to a specific age

Feminist organizations Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Feminist organizations - Essay Example Accordingly, the following brief analysis will make an inventory of each of these aspects as a function of further delineating and defining the National Organization for Women. Firstly, the website which was analyzed denoted that fact that the ultimate goal of the group was to take immediate action for the equality of women. Although this is specifically tied to the manner in which women’s issues and women’s rights are exhibited within the United States, the group also seeks to effect change in various regions around the globe on behalf of women and their needs/rights. The mission statement itself further seeks to hone the areas of focus that NOW seeks to integrate with. Accordingly, the mission statement is as follows, â€Å"the purpose of NOW is to take action to bring women into full participation in the mainstream of American society now, exercising all privileges and responsibilities thereof in truly equal partnership with men† (NOW 1). Similarly, with regards to the political orientation of the group, the website itself promotes the understanding that the group is specifically interested in engaging in actions that promote women’s rights, feminism, anti-racism, ending homophobia, promoting LGBT rights, and promoting reproductive rights. As might be easily inferred, the group generally promotes a more liberal interpretation of the political paradigm; siding more often than not with liberal and progressive elements within the United States and typically aligning with the Democratic party. However, with that being said, it must also be understood that NOW does not promote any one single political party; rather, their interests are supra-political and the group only sides with more progressive and liberal ideologies due to the fact that these most specifically represent the goals and ends that the group is trying to effect. With such a constraining level of missions and values, the group is invariably at

Should Capital Punishment to Be Abolished or Not Essay Example for Free

Should Capital Punishment to Be Abolished or Not Essay An eye for an eye would make the whole world blind. Mahatma Gandhi. This is a famous quote that many people cite when they pitch for the abolishment of capital punishment (death penalty) from the judicial process. The lengthy list of the terms which are not quite acceptable in a democracy begins with terms like capital punishment and death penalty. That, however, doesnt mean that this form of punishment is not acceptable in a democracy. In fact, two of the largest democracies in the world India and the United States of America, both have the provision for capital punishment as a part of their legal system. Indeed, the decision that capital punishment may be the appropriate sanction in extreme cases is an expression of the communitys belief that certain crimes are themselves so grievous an affront to humanity that the only adequate response may be the penalty of death. Capital punishment is a barbarous survival from a less enlightened and refined age; it is incongruous and incompatible with our present standard of civilization and humanity. It has been abolished by many states and countries, and we must look forward to the day when the other governments will follow suit Capital punishment, also known as Death penalty, is essentially the execution of an individual as punishment for offense by a state. The crimes which can lead to capital punishment are called capital crimes or capital offenses. Earlier, the killing of criminals and political opponents was prevalent in almost every civilization. With the time, nearly all European and several Pacific Area states (counting Australia, New Zealand and Timor Leste), and Canada have abolished death penalty. The majority of states in Latin America have absolutely abolished capital punishment, however, a few countries, like Brazil, use death penalty only in special situations, for example, treachery committed during wartime. There are still quite a few states and countries that retain the use of capital punishment, including the United States (the federal government and 36 of its states), Guatemala, majority of the Caribbean, Japan, India, and Africa (Botswana and Zambia). In almost all retentionist countries, capital punishment is granted as a penalty for planned murder, espionage, treachery, or as part of military justice. Recently, the case of Mohammad Afzal, a terrorist who was found guilty of instigating the attack on the Indian Parliament House, has cropped up the controversy regarding the Indian law of capital punishment. Right to Life Capital Punishment in India In India, capital punishment is granted for different crimes, counting murder, initiating a child’s suicide, instigating war against the government, acts of terrorism, or a second evidence for drug trafficking. Death penalty is officially permitted though it is to be used in the ‘rarest of rare’ cases as per the judgement of Supreme Court of India. Amongst the retentionist countries around the world, India has the lowest execution rate with just 55 people executed since independence in 1947. Since the condition of the ‘rarest of rare’ is not exactly defined, sometimes even less horrific murders have been awarded capital punishment owing to poor justification by lawyers. Since 1992, there are about 40 mercy petitions pending before the president. The proposals for abolition of death sentence for petty offences was brought about but there was a lot of hue and cry from lawyers , judges and parliamentarians and the so called protectors of social order. Six times the House of Commons passed the bill and six times the House of Lords rejected the same. With the passage of time, the voice for abolition of death penalty grew stronger over the world especially in Britain. However, in spite of opposition, the bill was passed and the number of cases in which capital punishment was awarded was reduced year after year and death penalty was reserved for offences like murder and treason. Currently, in the world 133 countries have abolished capital punishment dejure or defacto. 64 countries have retained it. Bangladesh is one of them. (source: Amnesty International Website) In UK , death penalty was abolished in 1965 except for offences of treason and certain forms of piracy and offences committed by members of the Armed Forces during wartime. In India , the recent trend is clearly towards the abolition of death sentence. Before the amendment of Criminal Procedure Code in 1955, it was obligatory for a court to give reasons for not awarding death sentence in case of murder. Under the Criminal Procedure Code, 1973, the court has to record reasons for awarding death sentence. A compassionate alternative of life imprisonment is gaining judicial ground in India . In a leading case of Bachan Sing v. State of Punjab(1980) 2 SCC 684,the Supreme Court held by a majority of four to one that the provisions of death sentence as an alternative punishment for murder in section 302 of Penal Code was not unreasonable and was in the public interest. The dissenting view of Justice Bhagwati was that instead of death sentence, the sentence of life imprisonment should be imposed. He put emphasis on barbarity and cruelty involved in death sentence. It is irrevocable and cannot be recalled. It extinguishes the flame of life for ever. It is destructive of the right to life which is the most precious right of all, a right without which enjoyment of no other right is possible. Justice Bhagwati rejects the view that death penalty acts as a deterrent against potential murderers. According to him, this view is a myth which has been carefully nurtured by a society which is actuated not so much by logic or reason as by a sense of retribution. Conclusion It has been pledged in the preamble of the republics constitution that equality and justice will be secured for all citizens. The liberation heroes had dedicated their lives with a view to establishing a welfare state in which fundamental human rights and freedoms and respect for the dignity and worth of the human person shall be guaranteed. Protection against cruel, inhuman, or degrading punishment is a fundamental right under art. 35 (4) of the constitution. So time has come to reconsider death sentence as a means of punishment. The worlds trend is precisely towards the correction of the offenders in lieu of inflicting cruel, inhuman and degrading punishment. Bangladesh as a democratic country cannot lag behind. The state is undergoing cumulative increase of crimes owing to a great deal of factors such as lack of good governance, absence of rule of law, corruption, patronisation of terrorists, wide gap between the haves and have-nots, confrontational politics and so on. Instead of giving emphasis on removing these factors, we are wrongly attempting to check crimes by inflicting exemplary punishment. What is a rarest of rare case? In the Bachan Singh judgment of 1980, the Supreme Court ruled that the death penalty should be used only in the rarest of rare cases. More than a quarter of a century later, it is clear that through the failure of the courts and the State authorities to apply consistently the procedures laid down by law and by that judgment, the Courts strictures remain unfulfilled. In a judgment delivered in December 2006, a Supreme Court bench admitted the Courts failure to evolve a sentencing policy in capital cases (Aloke Nath Dutta and ors. . State of West Bengal (MANU/SC/8774/2006)). The bench examined judgments over the past two decades in which the Supreme Court adjudicated upon whether a case was one of the rarest of the rare or not and concluded: What would constitute a rarest of rare case must be determined in the fact situation obtaining in each case [sic]. We have also noticed hereinbefore that different criteria have been adopted by different benches of th is Court, although the offences are similar in nature. Because the case involved offences under the same provision, the same by itself may not be a ground to lay down any uniform criteria for awarding a death penalty or a lesser penalty as several factors therefore are required to be taken into consideration. The frustration of the Court was evident when it stated: No sentencing policy in clear cut terms has been evolved by the Supreme Court. What should we do? In that particular ruling, the Court commuted the appellants death sentence. On the same day, however, another bench of the Supreme Court upheld the death sentence imposed on an appellant who had convicted of murdering his wife and four children (Bablu @ Mubarik Hussain v. State of Rajasthan (AIR 2007 SC 697)). After referring to the importance of reformation and rehabilitation of offenders as among the foremost objectives of the administration of criminal justice in the country, the judgment merely referred to the appellants declaration of the murders as evidence of his lack of remorse. There was no discussion of the specific situation of the appellant, the motive for the killings or the possibility of reform in his case. Death Penalty Statistics A look at the death penalty statistics of the world reveals that around 90 percent of the countries have already abolished the death penalty. These countries include Portugal, Venezuela, France, Canada, etc. This, however, hasnt turned out to be as fruitful as expected, because some of the major countries in the world, including China, India and the United States, still ontinue the use of death penalty execution as a part of their legal system. Statistics also reveal that approximately 80 percent of the death penalty executions the world over, come from the Asian countries, with China at the forefront with the highest execution rate in the world. In fact, the number of executions in China alone in 2008 was double the number of executions in the rest of the world combined for that year. CONSTITUTIONALITY OF DEATH PENALTY IN INDIA Imposing of death sentence is one thing that always gets more attention to be discussed, including from the view of constitutional validity in each countries. A serious discussion regarding to death sentence in Indonesia, whether it should be continued or abolished, has come up before the Court after some applicant applied a petition to Indonesian Constitutional Court in order to challenge the constitutionality of death penalty in Drugs and Narcotic Act against the provision of Rights to Life on Indonesian Constitution, 1945. This article is the first chapter of several other chapters with the topic of â€Å"death penalty† which will be flattened on the following days. *** The provision of death penalty as an alternative punishment for murder under s. 302, IPC[1] was challenged as constitutionally invalid being violate of Arts. 14,[2] 19[3] and 21[4] of the Constitution in a series of cases. It was contended in Jagmohan Singh v. State of U. P. [5] that the constitutional validity of death sentence has to be tested with reference to Arts. 14 and 19 besides Art. 1 of the Constitution as the right to life is fundamental to the enjoyment of all these freedoms as contained in Art. 19 of the Constitution. It was further contended that the Code of Criminal Procedure prescribed the procedure of finding guilt of an accused but regarding the sentence to be awarded under s. 302, IPC the unguided and uncontrolled discretion has been left to the Judge to decide the sentence to be awarded. The Supreme Court held that the death sentence as an alternative punishment under s. 302, IPC s not unreasonable and it is in the public interest and the procedural safeguard provided to the accused under the Code of Criminal Procedure is not unreasonable leaving the discretion with the judge to sentence an accused, convicted for murder either to death or life imprisonment Death sentence as an alternative punishment for life was held valid. Though the court did not accept the contention that the validity of the sentence to death has to be tested in the light of Arts. 14 and 10 of the Constitution. But in Rajendra Prasad v. State of U. P. 6] the court accepted the proposition that the validity of the death sentence can be tested with reference to Arts. 14, 19 and 21 of the Constitution. The Supreme Court suggested that in exceptional circumstances death sentence should be imposed only when public interest, social defence and public order would warrant. Such extreme penalty should be imposed in extreme cir cumstances. The court in Barchan Singh v. State of Punjab[7] upheld that constitutional validity of death sentence. The court reasoned that penal law does not attract Art. 19(1) of the Constitution. If the impact of the law on nay of the rights under Art. 19(1) is merely incidental, indirect, remote or collateral, Art. 19 would not be available for testing its validity. Accordingly, the court held that s. 302, IPC for its validity would not require to qualify the test of Art. 19. The procedure provided in the Code of Criminal Procedure for imposing capital punishment for murder cannot be said to be unfair, unreasonable and unjust. But Justice Bhagwati in his dissenting judgment held that s. 302, IPC and s. 354(3), Cr PC violation of Arts. 4 and 21 as these provisions confers unguided power on the court which irrational and arbitrary. Thus, death sentence should be imposed in the rarest of the rare case. The Supreme Court in Machhi Sing v State of Punjab[8] laid down the broad outlines of the circumstances when death sentence should be imposed. It should be considered whether there is something uncommon about the crime and the compelling circumstances for imposing death sentence after giving maximum weight age of the mitigating circumstances which is favour of the accused. Jumman Kahn was facing the gallows on being sentenced to death for having brutally raped and strangulated to death a six year old girl named Sakina. The convict challenged the death sentence and its constitutionality. [9] It was argued that death penalty is not only outmoded, unreasonable, cruel and unusual punishment but also defies the dignity of the individual and the issue needs reconsideration which stands like sentinel over human misery, degradation and oppression. The Supreme Court while endorsing its earlier view as to the constitutionality of death sentence held that the failure to impose death sentence is such grave cases here it is a crime against the society, particularly in case of murders with extreme brutality will bring to naught the sentence of death penalty provided by s. 302 of IPC. The only punishment which the convict deserves for having committed the reprehensible and gruesome murder of the innocent child to satisfy his lust is nothing but death as a measure of social necessity and also a means of deterring other potential offenders. The Supreme Court in earlier case Banchan Singh v. State Punjab[10] upheld the constitutional validity of imposition of death sentence as an alternative to life imprisonment and it was further that it is not violate of Arts. 14 and 21 of the Constitution. Chief Justice Chandrachud expressing the view of the three Judges of the Supreme Court in Sher Singh v State of Punjab[11] held that death sentence is constitutionally valid and permissible within the constrains of the rule in Bachan Singh (supra). This has to be accepted as the law of the land. The decisions rendered by this court after full debate has to be accepted without mental reservation until they are set aside. The challenge touching the constitutionality of the death sentence also surfaced in Triveniben v State of Gujarat[12] and in Allauddin’s case[13] and the Supreme Court asserted affirmatively that the Constitution does not prohibit the death penalty. It is in the rare cases, the legislature in its wisdom, considered it necessary impose the extreme punishment of death to deter others and to protect the society. The choice of sentence is left with the rider that the judge may visit the convict with extreme punishment provided there exist special reasons for doing so.

Cyclic Voltammetry Principle

Cyclic Voltammetry Principle Cyclic voltammetry is the most widely used technique for acquiring qualitative information about electrochemical reactions [34, 35]. The power of cyclic voltammetry results from its ability to provide considerable information on the thermodynamics and kinetics of heterogeneous electron transfer reactions [47, 48], and coupled chemical reactions [36, 37]. It also provides mathematical analysis of an electron transfer process at an electrode [41, 49, 50]. Basic Principle of Cyclic voltammetry An electron transfer process with a single step may be represented as; O + ne à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¡Ã¢â‚¬ ¹ R (2.1) where O and R are oxidized and reduced form of electoractive species respectively, which either is soluble in solution or absorbed on the electrode surface and are transported by diffusion alone. Cyclic voltammetry consists of scanning linearly the potential of a stationary working electrode (in an unstirred solution), using a triangular potential waveform. Depending on the information sought, single or multiple cycles can be used. During the potential sweep, the potentiostat measures the current resulting from the applied potential. The resulting plot of current vs. potential is termed as cyclic voltammogram. The excitation signal in cyclic voltammetry is given in Fig. 2.1a. Initially the potential of the electrode is Ei. Then the potential is swept linearly at the rate of ÃŽÂ ½ volts per second. In cyclic voltammetry reversal technique is carried out by reversing direction of scan after a certain time t =ÃŽÂ » .The potential at any time E (t) is given by E (t) = Ei ÃŽÂ ½t t E (t) = Ei 2ÃŽÂ ½ÃƒÅ½Ã‚ » + ÃŽÂ ½t tà ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¥ÃƒÅ½Ã‚ » (2.2b) HereÃŽÂ ½ is scan rate in V/s. The shape of the resulting cyclic voltammogram can be qualitatively explained as follows: When potential is increased from the region where oxidized form O is stable, cathodic current starts to flow as potential approaches E0 for R/O couple until a cathodic peak is reached. After traversing the potential region in which the reduction process takes place, the direction of potential sweep is reversed. The reaction-taking place in the forward scan can be expressed as O + e- à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ R During the reverse scan, R molecule (generated in the forward half cycle, and accumulated near the surface) is reoxidized back to O and anodic peak results. R à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ® O + e- In the forward scan as potential moves past Eo, the near-electrode concentration of O falls to zero, the mass transfer of O reaches a maximum rate, in unstirred solution, this rate then declines as the depletion of O further and further from electrode takes place. Before dropping again current passes through a maximum. Reversal of scan repeats the above sequence of events for the oxidation of electrochemically generated R that now predominates in near-electrode region. The continuous change in the surface concentration is coupled with an expansion of the diffusion layer thickness (as expected in the quiescent solutions). The resulting current peaks thus reflect the continuous change of the concentration gradient with time, hence, the increase to the peak current corresponds to the achievement of diffusion control, while the current drop (beyond the peak) exhibits a t-1/2 dependence (independent of the applied potential). For the above reasons, the reversal current has the same shape as the forward one. Electrochemical Cell Electrochemical cell is a sealed vessel which is designed to prevent the entry of air. It has an inlet and outlet to allow the saturation of solution with an inert gas, N2 or Ar. Removal of O2 is usually necessary to prevent currents due to the reduction of O2 interfering with response from system under study. The standard electrochemical cell consists of three electrodes immersed in an electrolyte; Working electrode (WE) Reference electrode (RE) Counter electrode (CE) Working Electrode (WE) The performance of the voltammetric procedure is strongly influenced by the working electrode material. Since the reaction of interest (reduction or oxidation) takes place on working electrode, it should provide high signal to noise characteristics, as well as a reproducible response. Thus, its selection depends primarily on two factors: the redox behaviour of the target analyte and the background current over the potential region required for the measurement. Other considerations include the potential window, electrical conductivity, surface reproducibility, mechanical properties, cost, availability and toxicity. A range of materials have found application as working electrodes for electroanalysis, the most popular are those involving mercury, carbon or noble metals (particularly platinum and gold). Reference Electrode (RE) This functional electrode has a constant potential so it can be used as reference standard against which potential of other electrode present in the cell can be measured. Commonly used reference electrodes are silver-silver chloride or the calomel electrode. Counter of Auxiliary Electrode (CE) It is also termed as auxiliary electrode and serves as source or sink for electrons so that current can be passed from external circuit through the cell. The potential at WE is monitored and controlled very precisely with respect to RE via potentiostat. This may be controlled in turn via interfacing with a computer. The desired waveform is imposed on the potential at the WE by a waveform generator. The potential drop V is usually measured by the current flowing between the WE and CE across a resistor R (from which (I=V/R), the latter connected in series with the two electrodes. The resulting I/V trace, termed as a voltammogram is then either plotted out via an XY chart recorder or, where possible, retained in a computer to allow any desired data manipulation prior to hard copy being taken. Single Electron Transfer Process Three types of single electron transfer process can be studied. Reversible process Irreversible process Quasi-reversible process Based on values of electrochemical parameters, i.e. peak potential Ep, half peak potential (Ep/2), half wave potential (E1/2), peak current (ip), anodic peak potential Epa, cathodic peak potential Epc etc, it can be ascertained whether a reaction is reversible, irreversible or quasi-reversible. Ep is the potential corresponding to peak current ip, Ep/2 is the potential corresponding to 0.5 ip, E1/2 is the potential corresponding to 0.85 ip. These  electrochemical parameters can be graphically obtained from the voltammogram as shown in the Fig. 2.2. Reversible Process The heterogeneous transfer of electron from an electrode to a reducible species and vice versa O + ne à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¡Ã¢â‚¬ ¹ R is a form of Nernstian electrode reaction with assumption that at the surface of electrode, rate of electron transfer is so rapid that a dynamic equilibrium is established and Nernstian condition holds i.e. CO(0,t) à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬ ¢ CR(0,t) = Exp[(nFà ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬ ¢RT)(Ei-ÃŽÂ ½t-Eo)] (2.3) In equation (2.3), Co and CR are concentration of oxidized and reduced species at the surface of electrode as a function of time, Eo is the standard electrode potential, Ei is the initial potential and ÃŽÂ ½ is the scan rate in volts per second. Under these conditions, the oxidized and reduced species involved in an electrode reaction are in equilibrium at the electrode surface and such an electrode reaction is termed as a reversible reaction. Current Expression Due to difference in concentration of electroactive species at the surface of electrode and the concentration in the bulk, diffusion controlled mass transport takes place. Ficks second law can be applied to obtain time dependent concentration distribution in one dimension of expanding diffusion layer. à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ci(x, t) à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬ ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬Å¡t = Dià ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬Å¡2Ci(x, t) à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬ ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬Å¡x2 (2.4) Peak current is a characteristic quantity in reversible cyclic voltammetric process. The current expression is obtained by solving Ficks law [51]. i = nFACo*(à Ã¢â€š ¬Doa)1/2 à Ã¢â‚¬ ¡(at) (2.5) where i = current, n = number of electrons transferred, A is the area of electrode, Co* is the bulk concentration of oxidized species, Do is the diffusion coefficient, à Ã¢â‚¬ ¡ (at) is the current function and a = nFÃŽÂ ½/RT At 298K, function à Ã¢â‚¬ ¡(at) and the current potential curve reaches their maximum for the reduction process at a potential which is 28.5/n mV more negative than the half wave potential i.e. at n(Ep-E1/2) = 28.50 mV, à Ã¢â€š ¬1/2à Ã¢â‚¬ ¡(at) = 0.4463 ( Table 2.1). Then the current expression for the forward potential scan becomes (2.6) where ip is the peak current or maximum current. Using T=298K, Area (A) in cm2, Diffusion coefficient (Do) in cm2/s, concentration of species O (Co*) in moles dm-3 and Scan rate (ÃŽÂ ½) in volts sec-1, equation (2.6) takes the following form, (2.7) Equation (2.7) is called Randles Sevick equation [39, 40]. Diagnostic Criteria of Reversibility Certain well-defined characteristic values can be obtained from the voltammogram, for a reversible electrochemical reaction. Relationship between peak potential (Ep) and half wave potential (E1/2) for a reversible reaction is given by, (2.8a) (2.8b) Where E1/2 is potential corresponding to i = 0.8817ip [41]. At 298 K (2.8c) From equations (2.8a) and (2.8b) one obtains, (2.9a) At 298K (2.9b) The peak voltage position does not alter as scan rate varies. In some cases, the precise determination of peak potential Ep is not easy because the observed CV peak is somewhat broader. So it is sometimes more convenient to report the potential at i = 0.5ip called half peak potential, which can be used for E1/2 determination [52]. (2.10a) At 298 K (2.10b) (2.10c) From equations (2.8a) and (2.10a) we obtain, (2.11a) At 298K (2.11b) The diagnostic criterion of single electron transfer reversible reaction is often sufficient to get qualitative as well as quantitative information about the thermodynamic and kinetic parameters of the system. For a reversible system, should be independent of the scan rate, however, it is found that generally increases with à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ®. This is due to presence of finite solution resistance between the reference and the working electrode. Irreversible Process For a totally irreversible process, reverse reaction of the electrode process does not occur. Actually for this type of reaction the charge transfer rate constant is quite small, i.e. ksh à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ £ 10-5cm sec-1, hence charge transfer is extremely low and current is mainly controlled by the rate of charge transfer reaction. Nernst equation is not applicable for such type of reaction. The process can be best described by the following reaction O + ne à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ® R Delahay [51] and later on Mastuda, Ayabe [48], and Reinmuth [53] described the stationary electrode voltammetric curves of the irreversible process. Irreversibility can be diagnosed by three major criteria. A shift in peak potential occurs as the scan rate varies. Half peak width for an irreversible process is given by (2.12) Here ÃŽÂ ± is transfer coefficient and na is the number of electrons involved in rate determining step of charge transfer process. At 298K (2.13) Current expression is given as, i = nFACo*(à Ã¢â€š ¬Dob)1/2 à Ã¢â‚¬ ¡(bt) (2.14) The function à Ã¢â‚¬ ¡(bt) goes through a maximum at à Ã¢â€š ¬1/2à Ã¢â‚¬ ¡(bt) = 0.4958.(Table 2.2). Introduction of this value in equation (2.14) yields the expression (2.15) for the peak  current. A plot of ln ip vs. (Ep-Eo) for different scan rates would be a straight line with a slope proportional to -à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ¡naF and an intercept proportional to ks,h. Quasi-reversible Process Quasi-reversible process is termed as a process which shows intermediate behaviour between reversible and irreversible processes. Both charge transfer and mass transfer control current of the reaction. For quasi-reversible process value of standard heterogeneous electron transfer rate constant, ks,h lies between 10-1 to 10-5 cm sec-1[42]. Cyclic voltammogram for quasi-reversible process is shown in Fig. 2.3. An expression relating the current to potential dependent charge transfer rate was first provided by Matsuda and Ayabe [48]. (2.17) where, ksh is the heterogeneous electron transfer rate constant at standard potential Eo of redox system,is the transfer coefficient and à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ¢ = 1- à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ¡. In this case, the shape of the peak and the various peak parameters are functions of à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ¡ and the dimensionless parameter à ¯Ã‚ Ã…’, defined as [54] (2.18) For quasi-reversible process current value is expressed as a function of. (2.19) where is expressed as (2.20) is shown in Fig. 2.4. It is observed that when à ¯Ã‚ Ã…’ > 10, the behavior approaches that of a reversible system. It is observed that for a quasi-reversible reaction, ip is not proportional to à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ®1/2. For half peak potential we have at 298K (2.21) This implies, These parameters attain limiting values characteristic of reversible or totally irreversible processes as à ¯Ã‚ Ã…’ varies. For à ¯Ã‚ Ã…’ >10, à ¯Ã‚ Ã¢â‚¬Å¾(à ¯Ã‚ Ã…’,à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ¡) = 2.2 which gives Ep-Ep/2 = 56.5mV (value characteristic of a reversible wave). For Variation of Ά with Άº and ÃŽÂ ± is shown in Fig. 2.5. For three types of electrode processes Matsuda and Ayabe [48] suggested following zone boundaries. a) Reversible (Nernstian) ΆºÃƒ ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ³15; ksh à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ³ 0.3 à Ã¢â‚¬ ¦1/2cm s-1 b) Quasi-Reversible 15à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ³ Άº à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ³ 10-2 (1+ÃŽÂ ±); 0.3 à Ã¢â‚¬ ¦1/2 à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ³ ksh à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ³ 2 10-5 à Ã¢â‚¬ ¦1/2 cm s-1 c) Totally Irreversible Άº Source: Bard, A.J.; Faulkner, L.R. Electrochemical Methods, Fundamentals and Applications, John Wiley, New York, 1980, pp 225. Source: Bard, A.J.; Faulkner, L.R. Electrochemical Methods, Fundamentals and Applications, John Wiley, New York, 1980, pp 227. Multi Electron Transfer Process Multi-electron transfer process usually takes place in two separate steps. Two-steps mechanism, each step characterized by its own electrochemical parameters is called EE mechanism. Stepwise reversible EE mechanism is given by following reaction, A + n1e à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¡Ã¢â‚¬ ¹ B (E10) (2.22a) B + n2e à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¡Ã¢â‚¬ ¹ C (E20) (2.22b) where, A and B are electroactive species and n1 and n2 are the number of electrons involved in successive steps. If A and B react at sufficiently separated potentials with A more easily reducible than B, the voltammogram for overall reduction of A to C consists of two separated waves. The first wave corresponds to the reduction of A to B with n1 electrons and in this potential range the substance B diffuses into the solution. As potential is scanned towards more cathodic values, a second wave appears which is made up of two superimposed parts. The current related to substance A, which is still diffusing toward electrode increases since this species now is reduced directly to substance C by (n1+n2) electrons. In addition, substance B, which was the product of the first wave, can be reduced in this potential region and a portion of this material diffuses back towards the electrode and reacts. Each heterogeneous electron transfer step is associated with its own electrochemical parameters i.e. ks,hi and ÃŽÂ ±i, where i =1, 2 for the 1st and 2nd electron transfer respectively. Based on the value of à ¯Ã‚ Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Eo, we come across three different types of cases [50] as shown in the Fig. 2.6. Types of Two Electron Transfer Reactions [50] Case 1: Separate Peaks When à ¯Ã‚ Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Eo à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ³ -150mV the EE mechanism is termed as disproportionate mechanism [55]. Cyclic voltammogram consists of two typical one-electron reduction waves. The heterogeneous electron transfer reaction may simultaneously be accompanied by homogenous electron transfer reactions, which in multi-electron system leads to disproportionation. Each disproportionation reaction can be described as, 2R1 à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¡Ã¢â‚¬ ¹ O+ R2 (2.23) The equilibrium constant K (disproportionation constant) is given by (2.24) It can be derived from the difference between the standard potentials using (2.25) Case 2: In this case, the individual waves merge into one broad distorted wave whose peak height and shape are no longer characteristics of a reversible wave. The wave is broadened similar to an irreversible wave, but can be distinguished from the irreversible voltammogram, in that the distorted wave does not shift on the potential axis as a function of the scan rate. Case 3: = 0mV Single peak In this case, in cyclic voltammogram, only a single wave would appear with peak current intermediate between those of a single step one electron and two electron transfer reactions and Ep-Ep/2 = 21 mV. Case 4: E1o If the energy required for the first second electron transfer is less than that for the first, one wave is observed having peak height equal to 23/2 times that of a single electron transfer process. In this case, Ep E1/2 = 14.25 mV. The effective E0 for the composite two electron wave is given by [50]. Source: Polcyn, D.S.; Shain, I. J. Anal. Chem. 1966, 38, 370. Cyclic Voltammetric Methods for the Determination of Heterogeneous Electron Transfer Rate Constant Cyclic voltammetry provides a systematic approach to solution of diffusion problems and determination of different kinetic parameters including ks,h. Various methods are reported in literature to determine heterogeneous rate constants. Nicholson [41, 42], Gileadi [56] and Kochi [37] developed different equations to calculate heterogeneous electron transfer rate constants. Nicholsons Method [41, 42] Nicholson derived an expression for determination of heterogeneous electron transfer rate constant ksh. This method is based on correlation between and ks,h through a dimensionless parameter by following equation, (2.26) where is scan rate. for different values of ΆEp can be obtained from the Table 2.3. Hence, if ΆEp (Epa-Epc) is determined from the voltammogram, can be known from Table 2.3. From the knowledge of, , ksh can be calculated using equation (2.27). If D o= DR then ÃŽÂ ³=1 (2.27) This method is applied for voltammograms having peak separation in the range of 57mV to 250mV, and between this range, the electrode process progresses from reversible to irreversible. With increasing scan rate, the peak separation and hence à Ã‹â€  decreases. It can be seen from the Table 2.3, that for reversible reactions i.e. for the current voltage curves and is independent of . For totally irreversible reaction i.e. for the back reaction becomes unimportant, anodic peak and is not observed. For quasi-reaction i.e. for 0. 001 Separation of cathodic and anodic peak potential as a function of the kinetic parameter à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ¹ in the cyclic voltammogram at room temperature. Kochis Method Kochi and Klinger [37] formulated another correlation between the rate constant for heterogeneous electron transfer and peak separation. The expression for ksh given by Kochi was (2.28) The standard rate constant ksh can be calculated from the difference of peak potentials and the sweep rates directly. This equation applies only to sweep rates which are large enough to induce electrode irreversibility. The relation derived by Kochi is based on following expressions derived by Nicholson and Shain [41]. (2.29a) (2.29b) where ÃŽÂ ² = 1-ÃŽÂ ± , and à Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ is the scan rate. Equations (2.29a) and (2.29b) yield (2.30) This expression is used for the determination of the transfer coefficient. Assuming that (for reversible reaction). We have, (2.31) Gileadis Method Gileadi [56] formulated a more sophisticated method for the determination of heterogeneous electron transfer rate constant, ks,h, using the idea of critical scan rate, c. This method can be used in the case where anodic peak is not observed. When reversible heterogeneous electron transfer process is studied at increasing scan rates, peak potential values also vary and process progresses towards irreversible. If are plotted against the logarithm of scan rates, a straight line at low scan rates and ascending curve at higher scan rate is obtained. Extrapolation of both curves intersects them at a point known as toe. This toe corresponds to the logarithm of critical scan rate, c. as shown in Fig. 2.7. Hence critical scan rate can be calculated experimentally. ks,h can be calculated as, (2.32) where à Ã¢â‚¬ ¦c is the critical scan rate, ÃŽÂ ± is a dimensionless parameter, called transfer coefficient and Do is the diffusion coefficient. Coupled Chemical Reactions Although charge transfer processes are an important part of entire spectrum of chemical reactions, they seldom occur as isolated elementary steps. Electron transfer reactions coupled with new bond formation or bond breaking steps are very frequent. The occurrence of such chemical reactions, which directly affect the available surface concentration of the electroactive species, is common to redox processes of many important organic and inorganic compounds. Changes in the shape of the cyclic voltammogram resulting from the chemical competition for the electrochemical reactant  or product, can be extremely useful for elucidating the reaction pathways and for providing reliable chemical information about reactive intermediates [35]. It is convenient to classify the different possible reaction schemes in which homogeneous reactions are associated with the heterogeneous electrons transfer steps by using letters to signify the nature of the step. E represents an electron transfer at the electrode surface, and C represents a homogenous chemical reaction. While O and R indicate oxidized and reduced forms of the electroactive species, other non electroactive species which result from the coupled chemical complication are indicated by W, Y, Z, etc [57]. The order of C with respect to E then follows the chronological order in which the two events occur [58]. So according to sequence of step, the systems are classified as EC, ECE, CE etc. These reactions are further classified on basis of reversibility. For example, subclasses of EC reactions can be distinguished depending on whether the reactions are reversible (r), quasi-reversible (q), or irreversible (i), for example Er Cr, ErCi, EqCi, etc. Two Steps Coupled Chemical Reactions In two steps reactions, a variety of possibilities exist, which include chemical reactions following or preceding a reversible or an irreversible electron transfer [59, 60, 61, 62]. The chemical reactions themselves may be reversible or irreversible. a) Preceding Chemical Reactions (CE) In a preceding chemical reaction, the species O is the product resulting from a chemical reaction. Such a reaction influences the amount of O to be reduced so forward peak is perturbed. For a preceding chemical reaction, two mechanisms are possible, depending on whether the electron transfer is reversible CrEr or irreversible CrEi [58]. Reversible Electrode Process Preceded by a Reversible Chemical Reaction (CrEr Reaction) The process in which a homogeneous chemical reaction precedes a reversible electron transfer is schematized as follows: (2.33) where Y represents the non electroactive species and O and R are the electroactive congeners. Since the supply of electroactive species O results from the chemical reaction, it is important to know that how much of O is formed during the time scale of cyclic voltammogram. In this connection, it must be noted that the time scale of voltammetry is measured by the parameter a = nFà Ã¢â‚¬ ¦/RT for a reversible process and b = ÃŽÂ ±naFà Ã¢â‚¬ ¦/RT for a quasi reversible or an irreversible process It means that the time scale of cyclic voltammetry is a function of the scan rate, in the sense that higher the scan rate, the higher is the competition of the voltammetric intervention with respect to the rate of chemical complication. The limit at which the chemical complication can proceed is governed either by the equilibrium constant K or the kinetics of the homogeneous reaction (l = kf+kr). In this regard, it is convenient to distinguish three limiting cases depending on the rate of chemical complication [41]. Slow preceding chemical reaction (kf+kr When K is large (i.e. K > 20) most of O will already be present in solution, the response is apparently not disturbed by the latter, i.e. it appears as a simple reversible electron transfer. When K is small, the small electron transfer again appears as a simple reversible process except that the peak current will be smaller than is expected on the basis of quantity of Y in the solution. This results because the concentration of the electroactive species CO, being determined by the equilibrium of the preceding reaction is equal to a fraction of species Y placed in the solution. where C* = CO (x,0) +CY(x,0) Fast preceding chemical reaction (kf+kr >> nFà Ã¢â‚¬ ¦/RT) When K is large, once again the response appears as a simple reversible electron transfer, but the measured standard potential Eo/* is shifted toward more negative values compared to the standard potential Eo/ of the couple O/ R by a factor of . When K is small, because of the fast continuous maintaining of the small equilibrium amount of O, the complete depletion of O at the electrode surface will never be reached, so that the forward profile no longer maintains the peak shape form, rather assumes a sigmoidal S-shaped curve, the height of which remains constant at all scan rates. Intermediate preceding chemical reaction (kf+kr = nFà Ã¢â‚¬ ¦/RT) In this case, the kinetics can be studied using the ratio between the kinetic and the diffusive currents according to the relationship (2.34) Irreversible Electrode Process Preceded by a Reversible Chemical Reaction (CrEi Reaction) This process is schematizes as. (2.35) In this case, not only the thermodynamic K (kf / kr) and kinetic (kf + kr) parameters of preceding chemical reaction but also the kinetic parameters of the electron transfer (ÃŽÂ ±, k0) play a role. Obviously the lack of reverse peak is immediately apparent, due to the irreversibility of the charge transfer. The curves are also more drawn out because of the electron transfer coefficient, ÃŽÂ ±. Slow preceding chemical reaction (kf+kr In this case, the process appears as a simple irreversible electron transfer. The peak height of the process depends on the equilibrium constant because, as mentioned in the previous case, the concentration of the active species CO is a fraction of the amount C* put in the solution: Fast preceding chemical reaction (kf+kr >> nFà Ã¢â‚¬ ¦/RT) If instead the reaction kinetics is fast, there are two possibilities: If K is large, again the response appears as if the preceding chemical reaction would be absent. However, the peak potential is shifted towards more negative values than those that would be recorded in the absence of the chemical complication by a factor equal to . If K is small, as in the preceding case, an easily recognizable S-like curve voltammogram is obtained having a limiting current independent from the scan rate (2.36) Intermediate preceding chemical reaction (kf+kr = nFà Ã¢â‚¬ ¦/RT) Here again, the kinetics can be studied using the ratio between the kinetic and diffusive currents according to the relationship (2.37) b) Following Chemical Reactions (EC) The process in which the primary product of an electron transfer becomes involved in a chemical reaction is indicated by EC mechanism. It can be represented by O + ne à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¡Ã¢â‚¬ ¹ R R à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¡Ã¢â‚¬ ¹ Z (2.38) where O and R are the electroactive congeners and Z represents the non electroactive species. Several situations are possible depending on the extent of electrochemical reversibility of the electron transfer and on the reversibility or irreversibility of the chemical reaction following the electron transfer. As a general criterion, in cyclic voltammetry, the presence of a following reaction has little influence on the forward peak, whereas it has a considerable effect on the reverse peak. Reversible Electrode Process Followed by a Reversible Chemical Reaction (ErCr Reaction) ErCr mechanism can be written as (2.39) Once again the voltammetric response will differ to a greater or lesser extent with respect to a simple electron transfer depending on the values of either the equilibrium constant, K, or the kinetics of the chemical complication (kf+kr) [58]. Analogously to that discussed for preceding equilibrium reactions, three limiting cases can be distinguished. Slow following chemical reaction (kf+kr If the rate of chemical reaction is low, it has a little effect on the process, thus reducing it a simple reversible electron transfer. Fast following chemical reaction (kf+kr >> nFà Ã¢â‚¬ ¦/RT) If the rate of the chemical complication is high, the system will always be in equilibrium and the voltammogram will apparently look like a non complicated reversible electron transfer. However, as a consequence of the continual partial removal of the species R from the electrode surface, the reduction occurs at potential values less negative than that of a simple electron transfer by an amount of . Due to the fast kinetics of the chemical complication, the potential will remain at this value regardless of the scan rate. Intermediate following chemical reaction (kf+kr=nFà Ã¢â‚¬ ¦/RT) If the kinetics of the chemical reaction are intermediate with the scan rate the response gradually shifts from previous value for a fast chemical reaction [which was more anodic by w.r.t. to value of the couple O/R] towards the Eo/ value assuming more and more the values predicted by the relationship (2.40) In other words, the response (which for the fast kinetics is more anodic compared to E0/) due to the competitive effects of the potential scan rate moves towards more cathodic values by 30/n (mV) for every ten fold increase in the scan rate. However, it is noted that at the same time, the reversible peak tends to disappear, in that on increasing the scan rate, the species Z does not have time to restore R. This is demonstrated by the current ratio which is about one at low scan rates, but it tends to zero at high scan rates. Reversible Electrode Process Followed by an Irreversible Chemical R

Why I liked the Movie In And Out :: essays papers

Why I liked the Movie "In And Out" The idea of a man coming to terms with his sexuality is always one that is relevant in our American culture. Its sad to know that in this day in age of advanced technology on society will always be hung up of the life style and preference of other individuals. "In And Out" as a movie did a good job at addressing this issue and making it light hearted enough for people to see, and possibly under stand. I’m sure that we all known some one in some way that we’ve thought to be homosexual: or at least we’ve considered them to be "Feminine" for a guy or to "Masculine" for a girl. With this we have our "doubts." With this movie taking place in a "Typical" suburban city it gives every one a chance to relate with the characters, from the high schools students all the way to the elderly grand parents. This allows the main character to touch the lives of every one. It also shows a little of why he cannot admit to himself his sexuality. He lives his entire life trying to live up to expectations of his community. However he doses know that within his true self needs to escape and some time dose, with his fascination for Barbara Strisand and other typical homosexual interest. However he miserably fails the "man" requirements but dose make the scene very funny. Howard, the movies main character is engaged to a beautiful woman, who becomes confused about her fiancà ©e when the first accusation of Howard’s homosexuality comes out. Howard is a school teacher but when the roomer starts his students don’t know how to react, they don’t know if its "True" or not However a few of them are mature enough to still accept and appreciate the help he has given them through the years. From helping them with schoolwork to helping them get to college, his good natured heart never lets them down. Howard’s mother is typical of most mothers in the way she’s so adamant about, how she wants to see a big wedding before she dies. This is also another reason Howard attempts to oppress his sexuality. He feels that he must give his parents what they want. This is some thing that I am sure most of us can all relate too.

Lord Of The Flies - Character :: essays research papers

Viewing the Text from a Different Perspective Many times in novels the elements of setting, mood and tone are used to extend beyond the words in a text and elaborate the reader’s mind into imagining the actual events taking place. In the classic novel, Lord of the Flies, William Golding utilizes the setting, mood and tone in great detail to reflect how the characters think, act and feel.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Upon a desolate tropical island, a group of boys of different characteristics get marooned when their plane crashes. Golding describes the island in a way that appeals to the reader as paradise, â€Å"The palms that stood made a green roof, covered on the underside with a quivering tangle of reflections from the lagoon...It was clear to the bottom and bright with the efflorescence of tropical weed and coral. A school of tiny, glittering fish flicked hither and thither.† (p.12) The island itself suggests a place of wonder and relaxation. Providing the reader with the impression of an utopia society, an impression that will soon be contradicted as the novel progresses.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  After a signal fire is ignited by Ralph’s orders, two young twins, Sam and Eric stand guard in maintaining the fire. While on duty, an eerie figure drifts down from the sky and lands in the forest several yards away from Sam and Eric. â€Å"There was a sudden bright explosion and corkscrew trail across the sky...There was a speck above the island, a figure dropping swiftly beneath a parachute, a figure that hung with dangling limbs. The changing winds of various altitudes took the figure where they would. Then three miles up, the wind steadied and bore it in a descending curve round the sky and swept it in a great slant across the reef and the lagoon toward the mountain.† (p.95) The dead parachutist, also known as the beast, is used to foreshadow the death of Simon, a small although intellectual boy. The parachutist shows the idea of one man slaughtering another as he dies in war.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  As Simon, returns to the other boys to inform them of his encounter with the parachutist (the beast), he is mistaken for the beast and is brutally attacked. The effects of lighting, rain as well as wind aroused the sensation of rage and excitement in the boys in their slaughter. â€Å"The beast struggled forward, broke the ring and fell over the steep edge of rock to the sand by the water.

Influence of Advertising

Terese Kruszka Beth Lewis How Advertising Influences Us 1. Calfee made it a point in his advertising that Kelloggs all-bran cereal is high in fiber. With being high in fiber it can reduce the risk of some kinds of cancer. He also used the advertising to inform people on their diet and how it can improve with that particular cereal. An advantage of Kelloggs coming out with high fiber cereal would be more brands would come out with other cereals with other nutrients that our bodies could use. Some other brands have cereals high in calcium which some people think it is just as good as high fiber. A disadvantage would be that all the brands are constantly trying to out do each other, by making their cereals much healthier and needed in consumers diets. 2. The spillover benefits of advertising are when people who have useful information that failed to reach people who need it because producers could not change a price to cover the costs. 3. Some of the ways free marketing competition in advertising benefits consumers is by reducing the cost of the ads. Calfee advertisement is regulated by the FTC who encourage his ads and make it perfectly legal. 4. The tone of this article is that Calfee is proving his advertisement is a huge success. He also proves that throughout the years he has been successful by informing people on what the effects may be from using the products. Calfee has information and facts of each point he tries to get across in the article.

Health and Education

Health education is an essential tool of community health. Every branch of community health has a health educational aspect and every community health worker is a health educator. But health education has been defined as a process which effects changes in the health practices of people and in the knowledge and attitudes related to suet changes. A great deal of ill-health in this country and elsewhere is due to ignorance of simple rules of hygiene or of indifference to their practical application. However, health is of the greatest importance and an indispensable factor in life.Without it a man becomes burden to others and useless to himself. In other words, health is the basis of individual and social welfare. But the concept of health and practice of health-education is almost as old as the human race. Health education has been defined as â€Å"the sum of all experiences in school and elsewhere that favor ably influence habits, attitudes and knowledge, related to individual, commun ity and racial health. † At present in our country much attention is being paid to the education for total health. Good health is a pre condition for good education.There is a saying that sound mind lives in a sound body. So, education cannot be acquired without the proper frame of the mind and proper frame of mind cannot be possible without proper health and hygiene. Realizing the importance of health education Secondary Education Commission, 1952-53 stated: â€Å"Unless! Physical education is accepted as an integral part of education and the educational authorities recognize it, need in schools the youth of the country, which form its ‘most variable asset, will never be able to pull their full weigh to national welfare.The emphasis so far has been more on the academic type of education without proper consideration being given to physical welfare and the main ­tenance ‘ proper standards of health of the pupils†. Health education is the very foundation of every successful public health programme so one of the main functions educations should be to help every child deve ­lop a healthy body, an alert mind and sound emotional attitudes. Health education aims at bridging the gulf between the health knowledge and health practices of the children.

Nature of Probability and Statistics Essay

Descriptive statistics consists of the collection, organization, summarization, and presentation of data. Inferential statistics consists of generalizing from samples to populations, performing estimations hypothesis testing, determining relationships among variables, and making predictions. (Probability, Hypothesis testing, relationships between variables, predictions) Probability is the chance of an event occurring. A population consists of all subjects that are being studied. A sample is a group of subjects selected from a population. Variables and Types of Data In order to gain knowledge about seemingly haphazard events, statisticians collect information for variables that describe the events. A variable is a characteristic or attribute that can assume different values. Data are the values that variables can assume. A data set is a collection of data values. Each value in the data set is called a data value or a datum. Random variables have values that are determined by chance. 1 M227 Chapter 1 Nature of Probability and Statistics Qualitative variables can be placed into distinct categories according to some characteristic or attribute. Quantitative variables are numerical in nature and can be ordered or ranked. Quantitative variables can be further classified into two groups. o Discrete variables assume values that can be counted. o Continuous variables can assume all values between any two specific values. (Discuss boundaries: ex. recorded height of 73 has boundary of 72. 5 ? x < 73. 5 ) Levels of Measurement: Variables are classified by how are organized, counted, or measured: Nominal—classifies data into mutually exclusive (nonoverlapping), exhausting categories in which no order or ranking can be imposed on the data. Ordinal—classifies data into categories that can be ranked; however, precise differences between the ranks do not exist. Interval—ranks data, and precise differences between units of measure do exist; however, there is no meaningful zero. Ratio—possesses all the characteristics of interval measurement, and there exists a true zero. Data Collection and Sampling Techniques Surveys are the most common method of collecting data. Three methods of surveying are: o Telephone surveys o Mailed questionnaire surveys o Personal interviews Direct Observations or surveying records Methods to obtain unbiased samples: o Random samples are selected using chance methods or random methods. o Systematic samples are obtained by numbering each subject of the population and then selecting every kth number. o Stratified samples are obtained by dividing the population into groups according to some characteristic that is important to the study, then sampling from each group. Cluster samples are obtained by using intact groups called clusters. Two main ways to classify statistical studies: In an observational study, the researcher merely observes what is happening or what has happened in the past and tries to draw conclusions based on these observations. In an experimental study, the researcher manipulates one of the variables and tries to determine how the manipulation influ ences other variables. 2 M227 Chapter 1 Nature of Probability and Statistics Statistical studies usually include one or more independent variables and one dependent variable. The independent variable in an axperimental study is the one that is being manipulated by the researcher. The independent variable is also called the explanatory variable. The rsultant variable is called the dependent variable or the random outcome. Uses and Misuses of Statistics Detached statistics Implied connections Misleading graphs Faulty survey questions Computers and Calculators In the past, statistical calculations were done with pencil and paper. However, with the advent of calculators, numerical computations became easier. Excel, MINITAB, and the TI-83 graphing calculator can be used to perform statistical computations.

Secret River

Shaira Sanchez 05/09/12 Shaira Sanchez 05/09/12 The Secret River by Kate Grenville Essay Explain the way that narrative devices have been employed by an author to construct a representation of people or places in at least one text that you have studied. You must make specific reference to â€Å"The Secret River. † One of Australia’s finest writers Kate Grenville wrote The Secret River which challenges traditional gender roles of women in the early nineteenth century London and Australia.The novel has challenged the female stereotype in a patriarchal society through the strong female character of Sal Thornhill. Sal has been the brains of her family through their tough times in London and their settlement in Sydney. Sal is the wife of William Thornhill, a convict. The memory of how the gentry treated Thornhill pushed him to work himself up into the foreign land of Australia to become like that gentleman he had served once back in London, in the water of Thames–the one with the power and the one who looked down on him who represents the working class.His determination to set off a space for himself in the foreign land eventually placed him and some of the settlers in direct opposition to the Aboriginal people by their desire to finally have control on their own lives. The use of a wide range of narrative devices in The Secret River has vividly taken the readers back to the nineteenth century where power and wealth determines a man’s position in the society. Sal Thornhill has been constructed in The Secret River as a strong female character who challenges traditional gender roles in the early nineteenth century–mainly when women were biologically, socially and intellectually inferior.Although Sal was raised in a quite comfortable lifestyle, she still has managed to cope with the tragic events in her life as a mother and as a wife. We see through Thornhill’s limited omniscient point of view that Sal would have to â€Å"brig hten herself up† because they both knew that Sal would have to offer her service in the cold streets of London to support her family’s financial needs, while Thornhill was convicted for theft. Sal’s staggering sacrifices did not just end in London.Her character even became stronger when they settled in a place that nothing Thornhill had ever seen–where â€Å"trees were tortured formless things† that looked half dead and when Christmas was during the hot days of summer. Women in that time were normally perceived as housekeepers and child-bearers. However, Sal did not just take care of her family emotionally and physically, but financially as well â€Å"At the end of each week Sal would count up the takings, from Thornhill’s work on the water and from her own selling liquor, and hide them away in a box. † which is evident through the descriptive language used.As a migrant myself, I understood Sal’s attitude towards the new environ ment that she was in. It wasn’t a part of her plan, but she accepted the circumstances and lived with it half-heartedly. Although her heart was always reminding her of ‘Home’, her mind and body still endured the harsh conditions, all for her family. It wasn’t the usual approach of women back in the nineteenth century to stand up for her family instead of the husband. However, Sal’s character was constructed to challenge the representation of women during that time by being the provider and the child-bearer all at once.Sal, her family, and the other settlers encountered the ‘otherness’ once they arrived in Sydney–which had two different representations as a race in The Secret River. Australia was not an empty land when the Thornhills and the white settlers arrived. They were not expecting people living in that type of place for thousands of years. These people were as strange as the place through the settlers’ perception. T here was one who hung about the Thornhills’ hut and entertained them, dressed only with a faded-pink bonnet on his head in trade for food and a sip of rum.They called him Scabby Bill who represents the ‘visible’ natives. His drunkenness and his appearance symbolises the detrimental impact of colonialism to the Aboriginals. The other sort of native were the ‘invisible’ ones who stayed away from the settlement. They were represented through Long Jack’s strong character. The settlers did not initially affect them, but they saw them as â€Å"snakes or the spiders, not something that could be guarded against† which symbolises as a threat to their dreams. The blacks, on the other hand had a different view of what the settlers referred to as ‘stealing’.Their belief is that nobody owns the land, not them, not the settlers. This clash of beliefs has lead to the novel’s climax, the massacre, where the ‘invisible’ became ‘visible’. The way Thornhill addresses the natives and were given English names symbolises Thornhill’s attitude being Eurocentric. Thornhill did not want to be engaged to the natives, but he himself implanted the European traditions on them. The settlers did not have the same beliefs towards the blacks, just like the natives were to them which also lead to two different representations–one that respects the ‘otherness’ and one that doesn’t.A huge contrast in the characters was made in the novel between Blackwood and Smasher. Blackwood was described as a huge deep and silent man who had â€Å"a rough dignity about him†. He believed in the concept of â€Å"give a little, take a little† in terms of dealing with the blacks. While Smasher’s appearance was constructed as â€Å"a naked-looking face without eyebrows† and always craves for attention that is evident through his dialogue that he had â€Å"not se en the event (rage) personally† but spreads the story anyway. He believed in the concept of ‘whips and biters’. There was no single respect that was given to the blacks from Smasher.Of all the characters, Blackwood has the greatest knowledge and appreciation of the Aboriginals and even lived with an Aboriginal woman and had a child. Smasher did live with one as well, but he referred to her as his â€Å"black bitch. † Although the settlers had the same hopes of finding a better life in Australia, they still ended up on two different paths due to the contrast on their attitude towards the Aboriginals. William Thornhill’s character was not constructed consistently in The Secret River as his attitudes and values towards Australia and the Aboriginals changed throughout the novel.Through Thornhill’s limited omniscient point of view, we sympathise with him by the way the gentry treated him as a waterman in the lower class. He had worked hard but his efforts were not appreciated, thus, pushed him to steal that lead him in his deportation to Australia. Thornhill and the majority of the convicts found a hope for a better life in Australia. It was what they have always longed for–to own a land, to finally have something they can call their own. Thornhill’s change n values was revealed through his dialogue, â€Å"Forgetting your manners are you, Dan Oldfield† he said to an old friend who he chose as one his servants. He became hungry for power and authority when he had a taste on what it was like to be on top of the others: on top of his fellow settlers, on top of the Aboriginals.Thornhill has spoken to the Aboriginals the way the gentry did to him â€Å"Old Boy, he started. He fancied the sound of that. † Thornhill and some of settlers saw the blacks as a hindrance to their one last chance to achieve their ultimate dream, like when Sagitty suggested to â€Å"get them before they get us. He has been succ essful in this goal but behind the high walls of his ‘villa’, was an unfulfilled William Thornhill after losing his friends and ultimately, his son Dick, who sympathise to the indigenous way of life. He became like the gentry, but not quite. He possessed the land, the house, the servants, but not the respect. The scars of his past were embedded on his name–William Thornhill, who was once a waterman, illiterate and an ex-convict. The Secret River has diverse representations of gender, class and race that have been successfully constructed in each character through the use of narrative devices.Sal represents those women who stood up for their family, in spite of the tagged inferiorities built by the society through the years especially in the nineteenth century and the earlier times. Scabby Bill and Long Jack represent the two different approach of their race on colonisation of the Europeans. Their values differ, just as the settlers’ views had towards them. Blackwood amongst all the others respects the Aboriginals, while Smasher had no heart for these people and treated them like animals.William Thornhill as the novel’s protagonist did not have a certain representation. His whole character was constructed based on his life back in London that resulted in a change of values as he found himself flourishing in his new ‘Home’. This novel lets the readers engage themselves in each of the representations effectively through Thornhill’s limited omniscient point of view. We tend to judge the differences in gender, in every class and in every race through what the society has already built on people as time goes by.However, Kate Grenville gave us a wider view of how each of these people ended up the way they were before, and the way they are in present time. As a migrant myself, I can compare myself with Sal, above all the characters. Migration wasn’t a part of our plan, but if that leads us to a better life, why not endure the circumstances? At the end of the day, every sacrifice and effort will be worth it. However, I believe that I will never end up the way Thornhill had– a wealthy man with a ‘villa’, without a peace of mind.